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After scientists confirmed that mosquitoes can transmit yellow fever and other diseases, mosquito control emerged as an important public health measure. Discover how Americans have managed mosquitoes at home and abroad through this selection of items from the NLM collection.
Aedes aegypti mosquito in the biting position, undated
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Today, scientists know that Aedes aegypti mosquitoes can transmit diseases like yellow fever, chikungunya, dengue fever, West Nile virus, Zika, and more.
For more information about mosquito bites, visit MedlinePlus.
Dr. Carlos J. Finlay poses for a portrait, ca. 1902
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Dr. Carlos J. Finlay, a Cuban physician, first proposed a link between mosquitoes and the transmission of yellow fever in 1881. His research informed the work of the US Army’s Yellow Fever Commission two decades later.
The Etiology of Yellow Fever: A Preliminary Note, 1901
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Dr. Walter Reed and his colleagues presented their findings at the American Public Health Association’s annual meeting in October 1900. The US Army’s Yellow Fever Commission confirmed the link between yellow fever and mosquitoes.
For more information about yellow fever and related conditions, visit MedlinePlus.
Members of the US Army’s Yellow Fever Commission clockwise from top left: Walter Reed, Aristides Agramonte, James Carroll, and Jesse W. Lazear, undated
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
When the United States occupied Cuba after the Spanish-American War (1898), yellow fever control became a pressing concern. Physicians with the US Army’s Yellow Fever Commission, organized in 1900, confirmed that the Aedes aegypti mosquito spreads the disease.
Mosquito Facts for Mosquito Fighters, 1926
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Chicago officials enlisted the help of all citizens to fight mosquitoes. This booklet instructed children and adults about the importance of eliminating mosquitoes and the best ways to do so.
For more information about mosquito bites, visit MedlinePlus.
Naval training film about “DDT,” 1944
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Military personnel in tropical areas were especially vulnerable to mosquito-borne diseases. The military developed DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) to control mosquitoes and other pests. This training film instructed US Navy personnel on the history, effectiveness, and safe use of DDT.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
“Major Reed’s Work in Havana,” distributed by the New Orleans & North-Eastern Railroad Company, the Alabama & Vicksburg Railway Company, and the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific Railway Company, ca. 1905
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Railroad passengers could read this pamphlet celebrating Walter Reed’s work in Cuba. The Yellow Fever Commission’s confirmation that mosquitoes transmit yellow fever were widely reported in newspapers and other outlets.
History of the Yellow Fever in New Orleans, During the Summer of 1853, 1854
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
The scene on the front of this pamphlet illustrates the horror of yellow fever: an entire family lies dead or dying in a single room. Although yellow fever killed far fewer people than many other diseases in the 19th century, imagery and stories like this one instilled a unique kind of fear in the popular imagination.
“Shotgun Quarantine in Florida” in Frank Leslie’s illustrated Newspaper, August 25, 1888
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
News of a yellow fever outbreak in a neighboring city or town caused panic among residents. Some cities, free from yellow fever, instituted “shotgun quarantines.” These quarantines, enforced by martial law, kept newcomers who might be infected from entering the city.
The Mosquito Fish (Gambusia) and its Relation to Malaria, 1927
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Beginning in the early 20th century, sanitary engineers and health officials introduced the mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) into a number of different ecosystems in the United States. The fish feeds on mosquito larvae and was sometimes used as part of a mosquito control program.
“Yellow Fever: A Map of Old Slip and Infected Vicinity” in A Statement of The Occurrences During a Malignant Yellow Fever in The City of New-York, 1819
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Plotting cases of yellow fever on a map allowed physicians to visualize the epidemic in new ways. Using this data in 1819, Dr. Felix Pascalis Ouviere concluded that yellow fever was the result of impure air, not contagion.
Report of the Committee, Appointed by the Medical Society, of the State of New-York, to Enquire into the Symptoms, Origin, Cause, and Prevention of the Pestilential Disease, that Prevailed in New-York during the Summer and Autumn of the Year 1798, 1799
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Doctors in the 19th century used each outbreak of yellow fever as an opportunity to refine their ideas about the disease’s causes. In 1799, members of New York’s Medical Society concluded that impure air or “pestilential effluvia” caused the disease.
“Observations on Epidemic and Pestilential Diseases with Allusions to the Author’s Forth-Coming History of the Subject” in The Spectator, September 29, 1798
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Experts in several fields studied yellow fever in the early 19th century. Noah Webster, known today for his work on an American dictionary of the English language, conducted an epidemiological study of yellow fever. He shared his initial conclusions about yellow fever during the 1793 outbreak.
An Account of the Malignant Fever, Lately Prevalent in the City of New-York, 1799
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
James Hardie, a teacher who lived through both the 1793 Philadelphia and the 1799 New York yellow fever outbreaks, cross-referenced records from churches and health committee members to produce this list of the dead. Maintaining an accurate count of the dead was complicated.
“Sanitary Map of the City of New Orleans” in The Cause and Prevention of Yellow Fever at New Orleans and Other Cities in America, 1857
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Mapping outbreaks of yellow fever provided doctors and urban reformers with information they needed to guide their efforts at urban sanitation. For 19th century experts who subscribed to the theory that impure air caused yellow fever, improving drainage, removing trash, and cleaning streets promised to reduce the disease.
Fumigation of sheds in New Orleans, yellow fever campaign, 1905
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
US Public Health Service employees used substances like tobacco, sulphur, and lime to control insects and check the spread of disease. New Orleans’ 1905 outbreak was the last yellow fever epidemic in the United States.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
“Chart B illustrating the Influence of Solar Radiation and Moisture in the Production of Yellow Fever in New Orleans” in The Cause and Prevention of Yellow Fever, 1855
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Some scientists in the 19th century thought that climate had an impact on the development and spread of yellow fever epidemics. They collected data on the weather in cities with regular yellow fever epidemics, like New Orleans, to identify the cause of the disease.
Report of the Executive Committee of the Yellow Fever National Relief Commission, 1879
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Moved by reports of suffering in Memphis and other Southern cities during a yellow fever epidemic in 1878, citizens in Washington, DC organized the Yellow Fever National Relief Commission. In addition to raising funds and collecting supplies, the commission worked with government agencies to deliver needed supplies and pay for nurses to deliver care.
Condensed History of the Great Yellow Fever Epidemic of 1878, 1879
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Curious readers around the country picked up accounts of the 1878 battle against yellow fever in Memphis, Tennessee. The author of this pamphlet also sold lithographs depicting destruction caused by the outbreak.
Minutes of the Meeting of Organization and Proceedings of the Sanitary Council of the Mississippi Valley, 1879
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
In the wake of the 1878 Mississippi Valley epidemic, city and state officials from across the region came together to coordinate their efforts to prevent yellow fever. This book documents their initial organizing meetings.
The Sand Hills Hospital, Jacksonville, Florida, in Harper’s Weekly, September 29, 1888
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
The sick in Jacksonville, Florida received care at Sand Hills Hospital. The Marine Hospital Service, a federal agency, operated the hospital during the 1888 yellow fever epidemic.
“Yellow Fever Epidemic: What Should be Done? Imperative Need of a National Sanitary Board,” September 14, 1888
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Politicians allowed the National Board of Health to cease functioning a few years before the 1888 epidemic in Jacksonville, Florida. The National Board of Health, established in 1879, assisted the states and managed national quarantine policy. Writing from the safety of Boston physician and activist Henry I. Bowditch plead for the reestablishment of a national sanitary board to respond to epidemics.
“Yellow Fever and the National Board of Health,” 1880
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
As health officials and politicians in the South coordinated their response to yellow fever, they also debated the involvement of the federal government. Some people worried that the National Board of Health, established in 1879 to assist the states and manage national quarantine policy, would threaten local control.
Report…Covering the Work of the Association During the Yellow Fever Epidemic, 1888, 1889
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Jacksonville, Florida residents formed the Auxiliary Sanitary Association to coordinate the local response to yellow fever. In addition to raising money and distributing food and other supplies, they negotiated with the federal government over quarantine policy and the conditions in quarantine camps and hospitals.
A Few General Directions with Regard to Destroying Mosquitoes, Particularly the Yellow-Fever Mosquito, 1904
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
William Gorgas, a military physician and chief sanitation officer during construction of the Panama Canal (1904–1914), wrote these guidelines during the time when he oversaw successful anti-mosquito campaigns in Panama.
Camp E. A. Perry, Yellow Fever Detention Camp, 1888
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
The Marine Hospital Service, a federal agency, detained people arriving from places with yellow fever during an epidemic of yellow fever in Florida in 1888. Camp E. A. Perry operated along the Florida-Georgia border.
Mosquitoes, 1901
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Leland Ossian Howard, an entomologist at the Department of Agriculture, became an authority on mosquitoes in the early 20th century. This book was an important reference for many people working in mosquito control.
For more information about mosquito bites, visit MedlinePlus.
The Panama Canal Species of the Genus Anopheles, 1920
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Sanitary inspectors and port physicians used this book to identify mosquitoes they encountered in the Panama Canal Zone. Different species of mosquitoes transmit different diseases, so correct identification was important.
For more information about mosquito bites, visit MedlinePlus.
Cuban physician Carlos J. Finlay poses for a portrait, 1902
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Dr. Carlos J. Finlay first proposed a link between mosquitoes and the transmission of yellow fever in 1881. His research informed the work of the US Army’s Yellow Fever Commission two decades later.
Conquerors of Yellow Fever, illustration by Dean Cornwell, ca. 1940
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
In the 1940s, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals used this painting of the US Army’s Yellow Fever Commission, the group led by Dr. Walter Reed that confirmed the link between mosquitoes and yellow fever, in an advertising campaign celebrating “Pioneers of American Medicine.” The image includes Dr. Walter Reed, standing center, Dr. Carlos J. Finlay, standing in a black suit on the left, and the rest of the members of the commission.
Sanitary engineering for mosquito control in Panama—before and after, June 1908
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
During construction of the Panama Canal (1904–1914), the United States instituted sanitary reforms to reduce yellow fever among workers. This photograph shows Bolivar Street in Colon, Panama, before and after it was paved to reduce mosquito breeding grounds.
Dr. William C. Gorgas surveying progress on Panama Canal construction, ca. 1904–1914
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
William Gorgas, a military physician and chief sanitation officer during construction of the Panama Canal (1904–1914), was a strong advocate of mosquito control as the most effective way to prevent yellow fever.
Film produced for the Rockefeller Foundation’s West African Yellow Fever Commission, ca. 1927
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
The Rockefeller Foundation, a philanthropic organization, supported yellow fever research in the early 20th century. This silent film documents its efforts to control the disease in West Africa through a combination of research and mosquito abatement.
An apparatus to mix large quantities of the insecticide Paris green and lime, ca. 1940
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Health officials used this device, made from a metal drum and a perforated stirring paddle, to mix large quantities of pesticides. The military and civilian health agencies employed several different types of insecticides in the 1940s.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
Soldier operating a hand rotary-blower to apply mosquito larvicide, 1945
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
This soldier used a blower to apply a powdered larvicide in a wooded area during World War II. Larvicides kill mosquitoes before they mature into adults capable of spreading disease.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
It's Up to You: Dengue-Yellow Fever Control, 1945
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
US public health officials enlisted the help of all Americans to control mosquitoes. This film explains how a successful anti-mosquito campaign promoted its work and recruited various community groups to participate in voluntary activities.
DDT: A Weapon Against Disease, 1945
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
This 1945 War Department film documents the US military’s use of the pesticide DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) to check an epidemic of typhus among refugees in occupied Italy.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
Space Spraying, 1954
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
This film, produced by the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, explains the best ways to apply insecticide as part of insect control programs.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
“How Magic is DDT,” reprinted from The Saturday Evening Post, 1945
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Army physician James Stevens Simmons celebrated DDT’s impact on military health and downplayed “rumors” about its negative effects on the environment in this article for the popular magazine The Saturday Evening Post.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
Sampling pond water for mosquito larvae, 1924
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Henry Carter, a yellow fever expert with the United States Public Health Service, collects mosquito larvae. Collecting samples of larvae allowed health officials to monitor the mosquito population and plan their treatment programs appropriately.
Reports on Plans for the Extermination of Mosquitoes on the North Shore of Long Island, 1902
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
In consultation with experts, The North Shore Improvement Association, on Long Island in New York, produced a large, detailed map of mosquitoes’ breeding grounds in 1901.
Policies and Procedures for Staff of the Aedes Aegypti Control Program, 1946
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
This training film introduced public health officials to all aspects of mosquito control in the 1940s, including the lifecycle of the mosquito, inspection procedures, and treatment plans.
Mosquito larvae in a test tube
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Like other insects, immature mosquitoes are called larvae. It takes between eight and ten days in room temperature water for Aedes aegypti to mature into biting insects.
For more information about mosquito bites, visit MedlinePlus.
Hand Ditching for Malaria Control, 1949
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
Digging and maintaining drainage ditches by hand formed an essential part of any mosquito control program. Good drainage eliminated mosquito breeding sites. This training film, produced by the State Board of Health of South Carolina, explains the proper techniques for digging ditches to control mosquitoes.
Worker at pesticide formulating plant, n.d.
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
This worker wore coveralls, a mask, and goggles while seated among cans of pesticide. High demand for pesticides like DDT in the years after World War II led to a rapid increase in production.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
The Effects of Environmental Chemicals on the Immune System, 1981
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
The U.S. National Library of Medicine’s Toxicology Information Program created this annotated bibliography of a decade’s worth of studies on the effects of chemicals on the immune system.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
Scientists studied pesticides’ effects on whole ecosystems, September 1964
Courtesy National Library of Medicine
A biologist performs an autopsy on a fish taken from lower Mississippi River in 1964. Data from these autopsies pointed to pesticide use as cause of large fish kills in the river.
For more information about pesticides, visit MedlinePlus.
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